Think About It: Using Critical Reflection and Service Learning to Develop Entrepreneurial Leaders

Amanda Evert, Jonna Myers and Jace Zacharias Posted on
Print Friendly, PDF & Email

DOI: https://doi.org/10.64010/IWTQ3989

Abstract

Today’s marketplace demands leaders who are equipped with critical thinking abilities, tech savvy, creativity, and entrepreneurial prowess. However, studies show that college graduates, and more specifically business graduates, do not always enter the workforce fluent in these skills. Thus, this paper addressed a specific assignment in which business students of different classifications, emphases, and ability levels were tasked with a service learning project. Following the project, each was asked to critically reflect on how the learning experience shaped their understanding of leadership, service, and professional development. The emergent themes revealed important information about students’ perceptions of their own development as entrepreneurial leaders.

Introduction

As the marketplace continues to demand entrepreneurial leaders, higher education faculty members and administrators are looking for unique ways to cultivate critical thinking, career preparedness, and field-specific expertise in their students (Niehm, Fiore, Hurst, Lee, & Sadachar, 2015). Educational scholars have linked post-graduate professional success to endeavors like service learning (Butin, 2003; Bringle & Hatcher, 1996), innovative engagement (Boyer, 1990), and experiential learning (Hawtrey, 2007) in the class-

room. Still, questions remain about the best ways to engage students in meaningful work that yields entrepreneurial acumen.

This qualitative study revolves around a project involving undergraduate business students, a service learning activity, and critical reflections strategically crafted to help students communicate their perceptions of the learning experience. We sought to better understand how our students perceive the concept of leadership, and how those perceptions might be sharpened or challenged through a service learning project. Additionally, we were interested to see how our students communicated how this learning experience might influence their future professional goals and how they apply these concepts in the workplace.

At the end of the project, several themes emerge regarding students’ perceptions of service learning and leadership. Additionally, we draw several important conclusions about critical reflection from the qualitative data that students submit. In summary, this article shares important insight into the aforementioned themes, as well as a roadmap for a service learning project and subsequent critical reflection that can be incorporated into business curriculum. In the creation of this assignment, we were intentional about incorporating a service learning element, then having business students reflect critically on their perception of leadership as they perceived it during the service learning activity. Since each of these concepts play an important role in the methodology that was used for this study, as well as the interpretation of the qualitative data, it is important to first establish a common understanding of service learning and critical reflection.

Service Learning

Service learning is a type of experiential education that combines classroom instruction with organized service to the community (Ash & Clayton, 2004). Typically, service learning is marked by an emphasis on civic engagement, reflection, and application of learning (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996). In recent decades, service learning has gained significant notoriety in business education literature as an effective way to incorporate hands-on business training with real needs in the community (Li, Kung, Tsai, Liu, & Lu, 2018; Kwong, Thompson, & Cheung, 2012).

Service learning appeals to institutions of higher education because “virtually all universities are interested in committing their resources to develop effective citizenship among their students, to address complex needs in their communities through the application of knowledge, and to form creative partnerships between the university and the community” (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996, p. 236). Devnarain and Naidoo (2009) contends that higher education can only produce real social and academic development through the facilitation of “multidisciplinary-holistic planning, management and implementation of service learning programmes” (p. 950).

Additionally, the higher education class classroom is an ideal place to facilitate opportunities that join service learning, community needs, and business skills applied to the field (Howard, 1998). The connection between service learning and academic instruction “provides a dynamic opportunity to strengthen student learning in a powerful context where students gain firsthand experience of contemporary economic, social, cultural and political issues, thus demonstrating ethical practice; critical thinking; cross-cultural sensitivity; personal and social development, and, effective communication” (Devnarain & Naidoo, 2009, p. 935-936).

Students and community members are not the only ones who benefit from the inclusion of service learning activities within the business higher education classroom. Faculty members can also reap immense benefits from strategically incorporating service learning. Henson and Sutliff (1998) assert that “integrating service learning into a regular class stimulates both teaching and learning” (p. 201). Devnarain and Naidoo (2009) show how faculty benefit from service learning in many ways including “new pedagogy which inspires innovative teaching methods; areas for research and publications related to current trends and issues are broadened; democratic citizenship and leadership is promoted through a consultative approach, and, awareness of current societal issues increases resulting in academic areas of interest and curriculum design being more context-related” (Devnarain & Naidoo, 2009, p. 938).

Critical Reflection

The role of reflection in the learning process is one that has been explored by educational scholars for nearly a century (Calkins & Harris, 2017; Brookfield, 1995). Dewey (1933) was one of the first to assert that how we think is critically important to understanding the learning process. Later, Freire (1972), Mezirow (1991), and Brookfield (1995) highlight the deeply personal nature of education by encouraging teachers and students to engage in critical reflection. When instructors reflect, it stimulates creativity and models for students for how to approach problems and apply course content to “real life” (Brookfield, 1995).

In his Transformative Learning Theory, Me-zirow (1991) emphasizes the significance of critical reflection and what he calls “meaning making.” “To make meaning means to make sense of an experience; we make an interpretation of it” (Mezirow, 1990, p. 1). Later, he defines reflection as “the process of critically assessing the content, process and premise(s) of our efforts to interpret and give meaning to an experience” (Mezirow, 1991, p. 104). “Reflection is the central dynamic in intentional learning, problem solving, and validity testing through rational discourse” (Mezirow, 1991, p. 99). Building on the work of Mezirow, White (2012) adds that the term reflection pertains to both the cognitive process and the broad range of activities that are make up an individual’s experience. “While much of what we know about reflection is rooted in experiential learning, leadership education programs which frame leadership as an experience could benefit from a richer understanding of the role of reflection in students’ learning” (White, 2012, p. 140). Devnara-in and Naidoo (2009) contend that reflection is also incredibly useful in helping students to make meaning of service experiences.

Finally, critical reflection is widely viewed as evidence of practitioner competence in professional development practice (Smith 2011). Malkki and Lindblom-Ylanne (2012) assert that reflection is most closely related to developmental change. Mackay (2013) confirms this notion: “findings indicate that reflection has to have a perceived value to students so that they can enjoy, rather than simply endure, the learning challenge” (p. 651). In conclusion, critical reflection provides a meaningful way for students to process and communicate experiences such as service or learning (Bay, 2011). Thus, critical reflection became not only an exercise for our students to engage in, but also a way for us to collect their data in a way that allowed them time to process their experiences before crafting a summary of them.

Method

For this study, we developed an assignment in which business students engaged in a service learning project and then reflected upon the experience. The service learning project involved working with students from a local high school to develop corporate social responsibility (CSR) project ideas for local businesses.

Prior to the day of the event, we worked with counselors at local high schools to establish a date where high school students could be transported to the university. During the weeks leading up to the event, we emphasized CSR in two different classes– Intro to Business and Business Communication–, as well as group facilitation, sales skills, and professionalism. All business students understood that the event, titled the Bulldog Networking Showcase, was intended to be an opportunity for them to apply what they have been learning and as a recruitment tool for the university and the school of business.

On the day of the Bulldog Networking Showcase, we sorted business students into pairs. These pairs each facilitated a focus group with a small collection (approximately 5-8) of high school students about the definition of CSR and their understanding of how CSR is occurring within their communities. Then, the business students guided high schoolers in the design and development of a CSR project that could benefit local businesses and communities. After the teams had substantial time to collaborate and create, one high school student from each team shared a “pitch” communicating to their classmates and collegiate “mentors” about the merits of their project proposals.

Participants

For this qualitative study, 75 undergraduate business students were invited to participate. Of those 75 who were invited, 47 agreed to participate. Thus, this purposive sampling strategy yielded a sample rate of approximately 63%. The composition of this group includes business majors (85%), engineering majors (11%) and computer science majors (4%), who are classified primarily as freshmen (28%) or sophomores (64%). Additionally, the predominant majority of the students in this group (98%) would technically be categorized as traditional college students based on the definition proposed by Pelletier (2010).

Questionnaire

Participants were given a list of 14 open-ended questions, adopted from the work of Rocco and Torrez (2015). The questions encourage students to reflect critically upon specific aspects of the learning experience including if and how their understanding of leadership changed as a result of the project, behaviors and traits of leaders, and how they will apply this experience to their future endeavors. White (2012) contends that “students perceive a deep connection between leadership learning and reflection” (p.147). Therefore, these critical reflection questions were strategically selected to elicit qualitative responses that revolve around the notion of leadership and how it is manifest in different scenarios, i.e. this service learning experience. Questions were proposed to gauge students’ perceptions of leadership throughout the activity and how they intend to apply what they experienced in future professional settings.

Theme Analysis & Limitations

After the Bulldog Networking Showcase was completed, the critical reflections were collected and analyzed for common themes using NVivo qualitative research software. Theme analysis is “a respected and well-established, widely-used method of qualitative analysis” (Boje, 2001, p. 122). Theme analysis is popular in large part because it affords researchers the opportunity to share the stories of participants in both inductive (emic) and deductive (etic) ways to construct a grand narrative (Mott-Stenerson, 2008; Zald, 1996).

It is important to also acknowledge limitations for theme analysis. Meier and Bolvin (2000) identify four limitations that could apply to this study:

  1. It is difficult to guarantee that the data from which themes are drawn is an accurate representation of the feelings and perspectives of the participant, or rather a reflection of earlier discourse regurgitated.
  2. Complete adherence to a consistent coding structure is nearly impossible.
  3. Findings are not generalizable.
  4. Theme analysis is taxing and labor-intensive.

Thus, these potential limitations should be taken into consideration when reviewing the findings of this study. While efforts were made to triangulate the data, using multiple researchers and a graduate student, as well as the use of software that consistently analyzes all of the data in its entirety, these limitations may have some influence over the outcomes purported here.

Discussion of Themes

The theme analysis yielded several theme. The two prevalent themes that emerge from the qualitative data include a clearer understanding of leadership in practice and specific behaviors demonstrated by leaders (namely delegation, power sharing, and positive verbal communication).

New Understanding of Leadership

One of the most prevalent themes that emerges from the qualitative data obtained in the critical reflections includes the perception of a clearer understanding of leadership following participation in the Bulldog Networking Showcase. Some of the data that highlights this theme include:

“Before this project I didn’t much about leadership, but it turns out that what I thought I knew was wrong.”

“I originally thought that I could just lead the team by answering their questions and helping put their thoughts into words as they presented their idea to the rest of the room. I learned that leading a group is much more than that.”

“This particular project led me to some soul searching as to what it really means to be a leader.”

“My view of leadership has changed in a positive way after the experience.”

“My view of leadership changed after this experience because we learned that appearing cool to others or being the loudest does not make you a leader.”

“I learned so much about what being a leader consists of and I’m grateful to this project for wiping away all of my past assumptions and fear of being a leader.”

This data aligns with much of the scholarship that has been published within the last decade regarding leadership education. For example, Bolden and Gosling (2008) contend that before students can begin to understand and apply their knowledge of leadership in social and contextual situations, they must first understand the personal. Similarly, Steffens, Mols, Haslam, and Okimoto (2016) assert the importance of individuals self-identifying their values and perceptions of leadership before they can truly champion collective interests. Thus, one important outcome of this study is the fact that many business students left with a greater awareness of their misconceptions and erroneous assumptions about the nature of leadership.

Behaviors of Leaders

A second theme that emerges frequently across the data is the recognition and “naming” of specific behaviors that students associate with leadership. Among the specific behaviors that are emphasized in the critical reflections, the three that are mentioned most regularly include: delegating tasks, sharing control, and verbally communicating positive feedback. Those sentiments are evident in the following comments from the business students’ reflections.

Behaviors of Leaders: Delegating Tasks.

“A second way that [leaders] can empower others is by making sure that everyone has something to do. This is another way to show that they are vital, a part of the team, and not someone who is just sitting there.”

“There are a few things that I will definitely do in my next group leadership experience. I will make sure that everyone has a job or role, and knows how to execute them correctly. Making sure that everyone has something to do is very important to me.”

Behaviors of Leaders: Sharing Control.

“I saw that a leader would make suggestions, but would also take suggestions and see how to make them fit into the plan. I saw that leadership isn’t about being “the boss” but being able to work with everybody and organize all the ideas.”

“Even though I was the group leader I sat back and gave the floor to them and gave advice rather than try to make all the plans and do all the talking… Overall from the event, I learned how to be more of a listener and a guide instead of being in control.”

“I will try to let the people I am leading know that they are the main voice.”

Behaviors of Leaders: Verbal Communication.

“One thing I could do to empower others is to make sure everyone feels they have a say in what is going on. Instead of telling the group how things would go, letting them come up with their own ideas can empower them greatly.”

“Whether it’s telling them ‘that’s an excellent idea’ or ‘you did a good job’ both can empower group members.”

“I saw how students gave more details when I showed interest in what they were saying. Therefore, just asking questions is not enough to be a leader. I believe that a leader should smile, make eye contact when asking questions and getting answers, be clear, and listen to the team equally.”

The behaviors highlighted by the business students offer a glimpse into their understanding of leadership, while affirming what countless scholars have affirmed over several decades: leadership is often demonstrated

by behaviors (Gottfredson & Aguinis, 2017; Wang, Tsui, & Xin, 2011; Burke et al., 2006). Each sub-theme (delegation, power sharing, and positive verbal communication) represents a substantial body of literature.

In her recent study of 75 mid- to senior-level organizational leaders and 188 followers, Anthony (2017) finds that the behaviors of leaders can have a tremendous impact on the attitudes and behaviors of followers. She contends that leadership is positively associated with constructive leadership behaviors such as delegation and less close supervision, i.e. power sharing (Anthony, 2017). “Leaders who provide their followers with individualized consideration are more likely to engage in more delegation and less close supervision leadership behaviors” (Anthony, 2017, p. 936).

Li and Qi (2015) interviewed 311 subordinates employed in 16 branches of a large telecommunications firm about a range of topics including engagement, organizational culture, and their views of tradition. They find that “supervisors’ power sharing enhanced subordinates’ task performance via the mediator of work engagement” (Li & Qi, 2015, p. 767). These findings corroborate the work of Chen, Zhang, and Wang (2014) who find that power sharing has an influential effect on subordinates’ task performance. They assert that power sharing is a way of empowering subordinates (Chen, Zhang, & Wang, 2014). It should be noted that though the participants in this study have not been exposed to this literature, several of them used the language of “empowerment” in their critical reflections.

Conclusion: Our Own Critical Reflection

As faculty members who interact with these students on a daily basis, we were pleasantly surprised by the candor with which students wrote about this assignment, their prior misconceptions about leadership, and their explicit plans to incorporate the things they learned during this activity into their professional aspirations. Initially, when the critical reflection component was built into the assignment, we feared that students might bypass their own thoughts, feelings, and assumptions, and proceed immediately to writing the “right” answer. However, we found the opposite to be true: the quality of their responses indicates that the students thoughtfully considered their role in the experience and sought to apply their learning to future versions of themselves. In summary, students seemed to engage in meaningful ways when asked to do so via critical reflection.

Additionally, on the day of the Bulldog Networking Showcase, students modeled the behaviors as they had been trained and equipped to do in their formal class settings. The service learning project afforded us the opportunity to facilitate scenarios in which participation was not optional. This real-world application is something that students recognized immediately at the day of the event, and have remarked on since that time. As De la Rosa, Alegre, and Angulo (2014) contend: application reinforces learning. We found this to be true with the Bulldog Networking Showcase as well.

Suggestions for Future Research

This study leaves a myriad of questions, which we hope to explore in future studies. The data yielded in this particular study demonstrates an interesting relationship between service and one’s understanding of leadership. It would be interesting to see if, and how, the responses would change if these elements were separated. For example, how might students reflect on concepts like power or ethics rather than leadership? Conversely, would students’ perceptions of leadership remain the same if they were answering the same questions after a guest speaker’s presentation or attending a career fair? How do these variables (service learning and leadership) influence each other?

A second area which needs additional attention is the role of critical reflection across the business curriculum in higher education. How does reflecting upon the concepts and theories explored in business education influence the professional development of students? Does critical reflection help them to apply what they are learning in ways that are more meaningful that a test or a paper? This avenue may yield important implications for the field of business education.

References

  • Anthony, E. L. (2017). The impact of leadership coaching on leadership behaviors. The Journal of Management Development, 36(7), 930-939.
  • Ash, S. L., & Clayton, P. H. (2004). The articulated learning: An approach to guided reflection and assessment. Innovative Higher Education, 29(2), 137-154. doi:10.1023/B:IHIE.0000048795.84634.4a
  • Bay, U., & Macfarlane, S. (2011). Teaching critical reflection: A tool for transformative learning in social work? Social Work Education, 30(7), 745-758.
  • Boje, D. (2001). Narrative Methods for Organizational and Communication Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  • Bolden, R., & Gosling, J. (2008). Tensions in higher education leadership: Towards a multi-level model of leadership practice. Higher Education Quarterly, 62(4), 358-376. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2273.2008.00398.x
  • Boyer, E. L. (1987). College: The undergraduate experience in america (1st ed. ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
  • Boyer, E. L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
  • Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1996). Implementing service learning in higher education. The Journal of Higher Education, 67(2), 221-239. doi:10.2307/2943981
  • Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a critically reflective teacher. (2nd ed.). Somerset, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.
  • Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Klein, C., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., & Halpin, S. M. (2006). What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams? A meta-analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(3), 288-307. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.02.007
  • Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
  • Butin, D. (2003). Of what use is it? Multiple conceptualizations of service learning within education. Teachers College Record, 105(9), 1674-1692.
  • Calkins, S., & Harris, M. (2017). Promoting critical reflection: An evaluation of the longer-term impact of a substantial faculty development program. Journal of Faculty Development, 21(2), 29-36.
  • Catano, V. M., & Harvey, S. (2011). Student perception of teaching effectiveness: Development and validation of the evaluation of teaching competencies scale (ETCS). Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 36(6), 701-717. doi:10.1080/02602938.2010.484879
  • Chen, C. C., Zhang, A. Y., & Wang, H. (2014). Enhancing the effects of power sharing on psychological empowerment: The roles of management control and power distance orientation. Management and Organization Review, 10, 135-156.
  • Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
  • Crisp, G., Baker, V. L., Griffin, K. A., Lunsford, L. G., & Pifer, M. J. (2017). Mentoring undergraduate students. ASHE Higher Education Report, 43(1), 7-103. doi:10.1002/aehe.20117
  • De la Rosa, O., Alegre, M., & Angulo, L. M. V. (2014). Student perceptions of innovative learning environments in higher education.
  • International Journal of University Teaching and Faculty Development, 5(4), 263-276.
  • Devnarain, B., & Naidoo, B. (2009). Service learning: Connecting higher education and civil society – Are we meeting the challenge? South African Journal of Higher Education, 23(5), 935-352.
  • Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process.
  • Lexington, KY: Heath Publishing.
  • Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed (30th anniversary ed.). New York, NY: Continuum.
  • Gottfredson, R. K., & Aguinis, H. (2017). Leadership behaviors and follower performance: Deductive and inductive examination of theoretical rationales and underlying mechanisms. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(4), 558-591. doi:10.1002/job.2152
  • Haber, P. (2012). Perceptions of leadership: An examination of college students’ understandings of the concept of leadership. Journal of Leadership Education, 11(2), 26-51. doi:10.12806/V11/I2/RF2
  • Harris, M., & Cullen, R. (2008). Learner-centered leadership: An agenda for action. Innovative Higher Education, 33(1), 21-28. doi:10.1007/s10755-007-9059-3
  • Harvey, S., M. Royal, and D. Stout. (2003). Instructor’s transformational leadership: University student attitudes and ratings. Psychological Reports, 92(2), 395-402. doi:10.2466/pr0.2003.92.2.395
  • Hawtrey, K. (2007). Using experiential learning techniques. The Journal of Economic Education, 38(2), 143-152.
  • Henson, L., & Sutliff, K. (1998). A service learning approach to business and technical writing instruction.
  • Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 28(2), 189-205.
  • Howard, J. P. F. (1998). Academic service learning: A counter-normative pedagogy. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1998(73), 21-29. doi:10.1002/tl.7303
  • Kwong, C. C. Y., Thompson, P., & Cheung, C. W. M. (2012). The effectiveness of social business plan competitions in developing social and civic awareness and participation. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 11(3), 324-348.
  • Li, L., Kung, H., Tsai, F., Liu, C., & Lu, K. (2018). Service learning, service climate, and service-based social innovation for sustainability. Sustainability, 10(7), 2566. doi:10.3390/su10072566
  • Li, S., & Qi, J. (2015). Power sharing and task performance: The role of work engagement and traditionalisty. Social Behavior and Personality, 43(5), 767-776. doi:http://0-dx.doi.org.library.uark.edu/10.2224/sbp.2015.43.5.767
  • Mackay, M., & Tymon, A. (2013). Working with uncertainty to support the teaching of critical reflection. Teaching in Higher Education, 18(6), 643-655. doi:10.1080/13562517.2013.774355
  • Mälkki, K., & Lindblom-Ylänne, S. (2012). From reflection to action? barriers and bridges between higher education teachers’ thoughts and actions. Studies in Higher Education, 37(1), 33-50. doi:10.1080/03075079.2010.492500
  • Mezirow, J. (1990). Fostering critical reflection in adulthood: A guide to transformative and emancipatory learning (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
  • Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  • Mott-Stenerson, B. (2008). Integrating qualitative and quantitative theoretical perspectives in applied advertising research.
  • Journal of Business Research, 61(5), 431-433. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.07.014
  • Niehm, L. S., Fiore, A. M., Hurst, J., Lee, Y., & Sadachar, A. (2015). Bridging the gap between entrepreneurship education and small rural businesses: An experiential service-learning approach. Journal of Business and Entrepreneurship, 26(3), 129-161.
  • Pelletier, S. (2010). Success for adult students. Public Purpose, Fall, 2-6. Washington, DC: American Association of
  • State Colleges and Universities.
  • Smith, E. (2011). Teaching critical reflection. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(2), 211-223. doi:10.1080/13562517.2010.515022
  • Steffens, N. K., Mols, F., Haslam, S. A., & Okimoto, T. G. (2016). True to what we stand for: Championing collective interests as a path to authentic leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(5), 726-744. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.04.004
  • Walker, P., & Finney, N. (1999). Skill development and critical thinking in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 4(4), 531-547.
  • Wang, H., Tsui, A. S., & Xin, K. R. (2011). CEO leadership behaviors, organizational performance, and employees’ attitudes.
  • The Leadership Quarterly, 22(1), 92-105. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.12.009
  • White, J. V. (2012). Students’ perception of the role of reflection in leadership learning. Journal of Leadership Education, 11(2), 140-157. doi:10.12806/V11/I2/RF8
  • Zacher, H., & Johnson, E. (2015). Leadership and creativity in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 40(7), 1210-1225. doi:10.1080/03075079.2014.881340
  • Zald, M. N. (1996). More fragmentation? Unfinished business in linking the social sciences and the humanities.
  • Administrative Science Quarterly, 41(2), 251-261.