Female Participation in Sport as an Indicator of Economic Success a Review of the Literature

Wanda Rutledge, John Donnellan, and Melanie McDonald Posted on
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.64010/FFLJ8474

Abstract

According to the United Nations Population Fund (2011), a higher number of women in the workforce correlate with higher gross domestic product (GDP) growth.  In the next five years, the global incomes of women are expected to grow from US $13 trillion to US $18 trillion.  That increase of US $5 trillion is almost twice the growth in GDP expected from China and India combined (EY, 2013b).  Today, women have little access to seats in business boardrooms, even in developed markets.  In many rapid-growth markets, women experience severe legal, cultural, and social restrictions against joining the labor force, along with the reality of having few or no rights to own property and limited access to education (EY, 2013b). Sport can be a powerful vehicle for change.  The full participation of women in team activities such as sports nurtures the advanced leadership skills that the complex world economy so urgently needs (EY, 2013b).  The United Nations Population Fund Report on Women, Gender Equality, and Sport determined that “the participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereotypes and discrimination, and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls” (2007, p. 3). Through the analysis of literature, this paper will explore how the impact of sports participation by women can have on development, entrepreneurship, and social change in Nigeria and Zambia, two countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), considered by The Prosperity Index in Africa (2011), the second fastest growing region of the world after Asia.

Introduction

In 2010, Aguirre and Sabbagh determined that nearly one billion women around the world could enter the global economy during the coming decade, equal to and just as significant as that of the billion-plus populations of India and China, leading them to dub this group of women the “Third Billion.”  The Boston Consulting Group (2013) predicts that by the year 2028, women will control close to 75% of discretionary spending worldwide.

There is compelling evidence that women can be powerful drivers of economic growth. Aguirre and Sabbagh’s (2010) estimates indicated that greater involvement from women participating in the workforce, providing leadership roles in business, and promoting entrepreneurship has an impact far beyond the direct gross domestic product ratings.  For example, Revenga and Shetty (2012) reported that women are more likely than men to invest a large proportion of their household income in the education of their children.  As those children grow up, their improved status becomes a positive social and economic factor in their society.  While there is enormous potential, there is a wide gap between that potential and the current reality.  Aguirre and Sabbagh (2010) contended that closing that gap and propelling women forward can bring powerful positive change to the global economy.  It is clear that addressing gender equality, closing the income gap, and in general, engaging some 50% of the world’s population in greater participation in the global economy must take a multi-faceted approach.

This paper seeks to shed some light on the role that women’s participation in sports can have in producing a positive impact on development, entrepreneurship, and social change in Nigeria and Zambia.  In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women’s capabilities as leaders and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains (United Nations, 2007). 

Sport has been a long-established male domain and the participation of women and girls in sport challenges a multitude of gender stereotypes, not only those that relate to physical ability but also those regarding women’s roles in local communities and society at large.  However, by directly challenging and dispelling misconceptions about women’s capabilities, integrated sport programs are seen to help reduce discrimination and broaden the role prescribed to women (United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace, 2003). 

Women around the world face significant discrimination and barriers to success in business, sport, and society at large.  Nowhere have those inequities been quite so stark as Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).  Stringent social, cultural, and legal barriers have excluded more than half of the region’s population in decision-making and full-participation in sports and in the economy.  There is some reason to hope that many more leaders in government, business, non-government organizations (NGOs), and sports are coming around to agreement with Nelson Mandela who was frequently quoted as saying: 

Sport has the power to change the world. It has the power to inspire. It has the power to unite people in a way that little else does. It speaks to youth in a language they understand [and creates] hope where once there was only despair. (Longman, 2013, para. 3)

Kelley, Brush, Greene, Litovsky, and Global Entrepreneurship Research Association (2013) found that the highest regional female Total Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) levels can be seen in Sub-Saharan Africa, where 27% of the female population is engaged in entrepreneurship (40% in Zambia) and that on average, SSA and Developing Asia exhibit the greatest gender parity.  Zambia and Nigeria are two SSA nations where women showed much greater confidence in their entrepreneurship capabilities.  Kelley et al. (2013) found that four out of five women in Zambia and Nigeria say they have the skills necessary to start their own business.  Figure 1 reflects the macro percentage view of regional TEA.

Perceptions of opportunity and capability are strongly linked to entrepreneurial activity, said VanderBrug (2013) in the Harvard Business Review’s  report on The Global Rise of Female Entrepreneurs.  While it does not negate the influence of access to capital and property ownership, a sense of agency, self-empowerment and personal freedom constitute essential building blocks for starting a business.  That perception of capability or confidence in their ability to succeed is one of the chief outcomes of women’s participation in sports.  An EY (2014) study of more than 800 female chief executives from more than 400 companies in 15 countries says the most important contributors to their current career success are persistence, ambition and drive, and confidence, much of which they learned from their participation in sports.

Figure 1. In general, female TEA rates in economies and regions are similar to that of males, albeit at lower levels. “On average, Sub-Saharan Africa and Developing Asia exhibit the greatest gender parity.” Adopted from “2012 Women’s Report,” by D.J. Kelley, C.G. Brush, P.G. Greene, Y. Litovsky, & Global Entrepreneurship Research Association. (2013). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Retrieved from http://www.babson.edu/Academics/centers/blank-center/global-research/gem/Documents/GEM%202012%20Womens%20Report.pdf

There are many challenges to be faced, but there is also some evidence to believe that greater access to and participation in sports by girls and women in SSA, specifically Nigeria and Zambia, can build a more viable workforce and spark more economic prosperity in emerging markets.

The Global Marketplace

Women are the most underutilized economic asset in the world’s economy, proclaimed Angel Gurria, secretary-general of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), from remarks given at the “The Global Economy: Strengthening Growth and Job Creation” 2014 G20 Leader’s Summit. (2014)   In 2010, Aguirre and Sabbagh presented the concept of the “Third Billion.”  The report proposed the idea that if China and India each represent roughly one billion emerging participants in the global marketplace, the third billion represents women who are entering the mainstream economy for the first time.  This notion grew out of their analysis of International Labor Organization data on women in the global workforce (Aguirre & Sabbagh, 2010). 

According to EY (2013b), women own approximately one third of all businesses in the world, and nearly half of those businesses are in developing markets.  Furthermore, the Boston Consulting Group (2013) predicted that by the year 2028, women will control close to 75% of discretionary spending worldwide.

A higher number of women in the workforce correlate with higher gross domestic product (GDP) growth, according to the United Nations Population Fund (2011).  In the next five years, the global incomes of women will grow from US $13 trillion to US $18 trillion.  That incremental US $5 trillion is almost twice the growth in GDP expected from China and India combined (EY, 2013b). 

While the economic potential is clear, Aguirre and Sabbagh (2010) further determined that approximately 860 million women worldwide are “not prepared” (lacking sufficient secondary education) and/or “not enabled” (lacking support from families and communities) to take part in the world economy.  Most of these women are between the ages of 20 and 65, and nearly 95% live in emerging economies; the rest live in North America, Western Europe and Japan.

Entrepreneurship

One key factor in harnessing the potential of women world-wide is entrepreneurship.  VanderBrug (2013) acknowledged that while increasingly a recognized force, women’s entrepreneurship still lags men’s in all but seven countries in the world.  If women’s labor participation were closer to male participation, it would contribute US $1 trillion to GDP in emerging economies.  Women-led businesses are key to this opportunity (VanderBrug, 2013). 

Women face significant obstacles to starting their own businesses, not the least of which is their lack of confidence and fear of failure.  Perceptions of opportunity and capability strongly link to entrepreneurial activity (Kelley et al., 2013).  This means that if you think you will succeed and will be supported, you are more likely to try.  In the US and developed Europe, women are 18% less likely to perceive they have the capability to start a business.  While the difference is less for developing economies, in every economy women report being generally more afraid of failure than their male counterparts (Kelley et al., 2013). 

In 2012, GEM, in the 14th study of its kind, surveyed 198,000 people in 69 countries.  The GEM Women’s Report (2013) looked at 67 of those economies.  In all but seven of the countries surveyed, women represent a minority of the nation’s entrepreneurs.  The seven economies noted in the report where there are as many or more women as men entrepreneurs are Panama, Thailand, Ghana, Ecuador, Nigeria, Mexico and Uganda (Kelley et al., 2013).  . 

In other findings, while more than 126 million female entrepreneurs were either starting or running new businesses in 2012 in the 67 countries measured, they are less confident about their abilities than men.  In every economy studied, women reported lower perceptions of their entrepreneurial capabilities than men (Kelley et al., 2013).  Women in developed regions of Asia show the lowest levels of confidence in their abilities.  Only 5% of women surveyed in Japan say they have the skills necessary to start their own business. 

If women have lower perceptions of their capabilities, then it is important to showcase the enormous opportunity for an enabling environment which would boost entrepreneurial activity rates.  VanderBrug (2013) reported that “foundational to this environment are access to healthcare, education, land rights and affordable childcare.  Just as critical are role models and mentors.” (para. 9)  Another way for women to boost self-confidence has been directly linked to their participation in sports (United Nations, n.d.).

Women in Corporations

It is not just entrepreneurship where women prove their economic worth to the business world.  Studies have repeatedly indicated that corporations with a higher proportion of women in top management show more successful growth in terms of a range of goals including operating results, employee satisfaction, public image, and stock price (Carter & Wagner, 2011; Credit Suisse Research Institute, 2012).

Although the number of female CEOs of Fortune 500 companies has doubled in the last decade, in 2012 it was still only 4% of the total.  When the world’s industrialized economies are viewed as a group, just 11.1% of board directors are women, and in rapid-growth markets, that number falls to 7.2%, according to Governance Metrics International (GMI) (Hodgson, 2012).

The missed opportunity is all the more striking in light of the difference that empowered women, and the diverse viewpoints they bring, can make to the world.  Closing the gender gap enables both public- and private-sector organizations to fuel measurable economic growth.

Research shows that women in leadership positions can enhance organizational performance in measurable, quantifiable ways.  Consider these key benchmarks: 

Organizational excellence: A study of 101 large corporations showed that companies with three or more women in senior management functions scored higher than companies with no women at the top on nine criteria of organizational excellence, including key factors such as leadership, accountability and innovation (Desvaux & Devillard, 2008). 

Profitability: A study of eight Fortune 100 companies showed that diverse corporate boards correlated with higher profitability.  The average return on equity for companies with a highly diverse board was 25%, compared to only 9% for companies with a uniform board (Chicago United, 2013).  In another study, the 25 Fortune 500 firms with the best record of promoting women to high positions were between 18% and 69% more profitable than the median Fortune 500 firms in their industries (Adler, 2009). 

Financial indicators: Among Fortune 500 companies, firms with the highest representation of women board directors outperformed those with the least, as measured by return on equity, return on sales and return on invested capital (53%, 42% and 66%, respectively) (Carter & Wagner, 2011).

Firm quality: Data on the top 1,500 US firms from 1992 to 2006 shows a strong correlation between firm quality as measured by Tobin’s Q (the market value of a company divided by the replacement value of its assets) and female participation in senior management (Dezso & Ross, 2008).

Innovation: A comprehensive study of 1,000 international teams found that innovation correlated positively with an equal gender ratio within work teams and correlated negatively with an unequal ratio (Gratton, Kelan, Voigt, Walker, & Wolfram, 2007). 

Beyond the Boardroom

The economic advancement of women does not just empower them but also leads to greater overall prosperity.  The idea has been a consistent theme in the literature of women’s issues, but it is typically argued with anecdotal rather than quantitative results.  As Caroline Anstey, managing director of the World Bank, put it, “Gender equality is good in and of itself, and it is smart economics.  But the first one of these alone never seems to convince anyone,” (Anstey, 2011, para. 36). 

The findings of the research by Booz and Company (2010) related to their Third Billion Index strongly suggests that economically empowering women is the key to greater societal gains. Such a relationship indicates that positive steps taken by governments, non-government organizations, businesses, and other agents 

…intended to economically empower women not only contribute to the immediate goals of mobilizing the female workforce, but also lead to broader gains for all citizens, such as economic prosperity and improvements in health, early childhood development, security, and freedom. (Aguirre, Hoteit, Rupp, & Sabbagh, 2012, p. 15)

Revenga and Shetty (2012) recognized that closing the gap in well-being between males and females is as much a part of development as is reducing income poverty.  Greater gender equality also enhances economic efficiency and improves other development outcomes. 

Aguirre and Sabbagh (2010) defined broader indications of well-being, such as per capita GDP, literacy rates, access to education, and infant mortality.  They indicate, however, that improving the economic lot of women in a country can generate benefits that transcend traditional gender boundaries and improve society at large.  Revenga and Shetty (2012) agree and provided policy implications.  They suggested that to bring about gender equality, policymakers need to focus their actions on five clear priorities: reducing the excess mortality of girls and women; eliminating remaining gender disadvantages in education; increasing women’s access to economic opportunity and thus earnings and productivity; giving women an equal voice in households and societies; and limiting the transmission of gender inequality across generations (Revenga & Shetty, 2012).

These five priorities intersect with some of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) set forth by the 2003 United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace that provided a report on sport as a tool for development and peace. The Agency noted that MDGs were: to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education; promote gender equality and empower women; reduce child mortality and improve maternal health; combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensure environmental sustainability; and develop a global partnership for development.  The report found that all areas of development can be influenced by sport, and women have been found to play an integral role in the achievement of every MDG (United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace, 2003).

The Role of Sport

  Sport has been one of the most important socio-cultural learning experiences for boys and men for many years.  Gerdy (2000) identified one of the primary reasons for the development of organized sport, particularly in schools, as the need expressed by business and industry leaders to socialize young men into productive workers for the growing industrial economic system at the beginning of the 20th century.  Early US industrialists such as J.P. Morgan, J.D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie helped finance many public school athletic teams because they believed participation in sports would ultimately produce workers that were loyal, competitive, who responded to authority, and could work as part of a team (Miracle & Rees, 1998). 

The connection between business and sports is reflected in a report by Fortune (Casey, 2014), that says 95% of Fortune 500 executives participated in high school athletics.  Kniffin, Wansink, and Shimizu (2014) found that former student-athletes displayed significantly higher levels of leadership, self-confidence, and self-respect than those who were active outside of sports. 

It cannot be surprising that the benefits men derive from participating in sports also accrue to women.  EY (2013a) found that there is a direct correlation between women’s participation in sport and their leadership capabilities.  Some of the world’s most senior women leaders participated in sports.  International Monetary Fund head, Christine Lagarde, is a former member of France’s synchronized swimming team.  Condoleezza Rice, former US Secretary of State, was a competitive figure skater.  Another former US Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, played basketball, soccer, and softball. Brazilian President, Dilma Rousseff, played volleyball. PepsiCo CEO, Indra Nooyi, played cricket in India and baseball in the United States. DuPont CEO Ellen Kullman played lacrosse, softball, and college basketball.  The co-founder of Marvell Technology Group, Weili Dai, played semi-professional basketball in China.

Sport is where boys have traditionally learned about teamwork, goal-setting, the pursuit of excellence in performance and other achievement-oriented behaviors – critical skills necessary for success in the workplace.  The Women’s Sports Foundation (WSF) asserts, “In an economic environment where the quality of our children’s lives will be dependent on two-income families, our daughters cannot be less prepared for the highly competitive workplace than our sons,” (WSF, n.d., pp. 1-2).

  • The evidence for women athletes taking on leadership in the business world is compelling.  A 2002 survey by MassMutual Financial Group and Oppenheimer Funds (From the Locker Room to the Boardroom: A Survey on Sports in the Lives of Women Business Executives) revealed 80% of the women executives surveyed played sports growing up.  The survey of more than 400 senior women executives found that:
    86% say sports helped them to be more disciplined.
  • 69% note sports assisted in the development of their leadership skills.
  • 68% say sports helped them deal with failure.
  • 59% believe sports gave them a competitive edge. (MassMutual, 2002)

A separate survey by Ernst and Young (2013a) of more than 800 women executives, found that a far greater proportion of women who occupy roles as CEO, CFO, COO, etc. (referred to as C-level positions) rather than lower-level managers had participated in sports at a higher level, especially at university or as a working adult.  Nearly 67% of women now in C-level positions have participated in sports as working adults, compared with 55% of other female managers.  The survey conducted in 2013, had more than 400 female executives throughout the world respond, with the top five countries consisting of Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

The majority of women executives say that a sport background can help accelerate a woman’s leadership and career potential, and has a positive influence on hiring decisions.  Furthermore, they believe the ability to motivate others is one positive outcome of playing sports, while the commitment to complete projects is another.  Discipline as honed by sports also translates into positive corporate qualities, such as determination and work ethic.  Women chief executives note that the most important contributors to their current career success are persistence, ambition and drive, and confidence, much of which they learned from their participation in sports (EY, 2014).  . 

The respondents included 821 senior managers and executives (40% female, 60% male) who work at companies with annual revenues in excess of US $250 million.  Together they represented 15 different countries (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Russia, South Africa, United Kingdom, and United States) and a wide range of industries including but not limited to agriculture, automotive, entertainment, media and publishing, government/public sector, financial services, and technology (Glass, 2013).

Additional research findings include:

  • Ninety percent of women agree that teams are the best way to address increasingly complex business problems, while 82% agree that improving their organization’s ability to develop and manage teams will be essential for future competitiveness. 
  • When comparing C-level female respondents to other female managers, a far higher proportion had participated in sports at a higher level, especially at university or as a working adult.  For example, nearly seven in ten (67%) women now occupying a C-level position had participated in sports as a working adult, compared with 55% of other female managers, while 55% of the C-suite women had played sports at a university level, compared with 39% of other female managers.
  • More than three-quarters, or 76%, of women agree that adopting behaviors and techniques from sport in the corporate environment can be an effective way of improving the performance of teams (Glass, 2013).

Figure 2. Study percentage of female C-level with sports backgrounds at various levels of their careers.  Adapted from “Ernest & Young studies the connection between female executives and sports,” by A. Glass (2013, June 24). Forbes. Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/alanaglass/2013/06/24/ernst-young-studies-the-connection-between-female-executives-and-sports/
A United Nations 2007 report on Women, Gender Equity and Sports notes:

Over the past decade, there has been a growing understanding that access to and participation in sport and physical education is not only a right in itself, but can also be used to promote a number of important development goals through facilitating democratic principles, promoting leadership development, and encouraging tolerance and respect, as well as providing access to opportunities and social networks.  All areas of development can be influenced by sport, including health, education, employment, social inclusion, political development and peace and security. (United Nations, 2007, p. 4)

World Focus on Women and Sport

In many parts of the world, women do not have equal access to sports.  Yet there is clear evidence that participation on the playing field correlates with sizeable gains.  The Women’s Sports Foundation (n.d.) has long-term research that shows, for example, women and girls who participate in sports are less likely to take drugs, be overweight, suffer from depression and diabetes, engage in abusive relationships or have unwanted pregnancies.  They are more likely to graduate from high school, earn postgraduate degrees and earn more money. 

In 2003, the Secretary-General convened the United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace that subsequently provided a report on Sport as a Tool for Development and Peace: Towards Achieving the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG).  The report found that all areas of development can be influenced by sport, including health, education, employment, social inclusion, political development and peace and security.  Throughout the world, leaders in all arenas have also recognized the power of sport as a catalyst for social and economic development.  Women have been found to play an integral role in the achievement of every MDG (United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace, 2003).

Sport and physical activity were first specifically recognized as a human right in the International Charter of Physical Education and Sport, adopted in 1978 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).  The Charter states: 

One of the essential conditions for the effective exercise of human rights is that everyone should be free to develop and preserve his or her physical, intellectual, and moral powers, and that access to physical education and sport should consequently be assured and guaranteed for all human beings. (UNESCO, 1978, p. 1)

Since then, governments, the United Nations system, numerous agencies and NGOs, as well as civil society have supported the notion of sport and physical education as a human right. Many have worked on a variety of initiatives, policies, and programs to encourage women to practice regular sport and recreational activities.  There is much agreement that such efforts have a positive impact on women’s health, well-being and fitness throughout the whole life cycle, and seek to ensure that women enjoy equal opportunities to practice sport, use sport facilities and take part in competitions.

The International Olympic Committee (IOC) is one such group that plays a central leadership role in the world of sport, and its policies set standards in international, regional and national sporting events and procedures.  The IOC and its National Olympic Committees (NOCs) established the Women and Sport Commission, to annually monitor the participation of women in the Olympics as well as their representation in decision-making.  The Commission defines priority actions to increase the involvement of women.  They initially set a goal of 20% women in decision-making roles by 2005 (Institute of Sport & Leisure Policy for the International Olympic Committee, 2004; International Olympic Committee, 2005; United Nations, n.d.).  

Sixty-two percent of NOCs had achieved these targets by 2005.  There were nine women NOC Presidents: five in Africa, three in Europe and one in the Americas; and there were 14 women Secretaries General: four in Europe, four in the Americas, three in Africa, two in Asia and one in Oceania.  According to the IOC’s official website, Africa is leading the way for women’s leadership, and in 2005, the National Olympic Committee of Zambia became the second in the world to elect women as both President (Miriam C. Moyo) and Secretary General (Hazel M. Kennedy) (Institute of Sport & Leisure Policy for the International Olympic Committee, 2004; International Olympic Committee, 2005; United Nations, n.d.).  It is the leadership shown by Africa in the promotion of women to leadership roles in sport governing bodies which provides some hope that this vision can be duplicated in other aspects of women’s lives.

Women of Africa (Nigeria and Zambia)

According to The Prosperity Index of Africa (2011), the entrepreneurial landscape in Africa is multi-faceted. It includes informal and formal sectors, traditional and modern, as well as local and foreign-owned enterprises, all of which are geographically dispersed across rural and urban areas.  It ranges from small enterprises (providing employment for a single individual) to large corporations (employing hundreds). Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs), however, are the dominant form of entrepreneurial activity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).  SMEs constitute around 90% of SSA business operations and create over 50% of employment and GDP (Roxburgh, Dörr, Leke, Tazi-Riffi, van Wamelen, Lund, Chironga, Alatovik, Atkins, Terfous, & Zeino-Mahmalat, 2010).

In the recent decades, most SSA countries have seen economic growth rates surpassing those of Western Europe, the United States and even some Asian countries.  SSA is now the second fastest growing region of the world after Asia.  The informal economy represents more than 70% of economic activity in most SSA countries and women are responsible for the largest percentage of players in that informal economy, some 70% according to Roxburgh et al. (2010).  Kermeliotis and Veselinovic (2014) noted that “sub-Saharan Africa is the region with by far the highest number of people involved in early-stage entrepreneurial activity, with Zambia and Nigeria leading the world rankings” (para.5). They further state that African women from Nigeria, Zambia, and Ghana are leading the world in the number of women starting businesses, with almost equal levels of male and female entrepreneurs (Kermeliotis & Veselinovic, 2014).

   McCarthy (2014) found one in seven adults worldwide (14%) who are not already business owners said they plan to start their own business in the next year.  Entrepreneurial intent was highest in SSA.  Entrepreneurial intentions tended to be highest in regions where many new businesses are born out of necessity rather than opportunity.  SSA and the Middle East and North Africa region, where 23% planned to start a business, had the lowest Payroll to Population (P2P) employment rates in the world in 2013. 

   Also significant in this review is the United Nations Population Fund (Das Gupta, Engelman, Levy, Luchsinger, Merrick, Rosen, & Castle, 2014) reports that demographic transition occurs when a population shifts from high fertility rates and high mortality rates to low fertility rates and low mortality rates.  They report there has historically been a window of rapid economic growth in countries experiencing the demographic transition, a benefit called the “demographic dividend.”  This accelerated growth occurs when a country’s working age population grows larger than the non-working age population, creating a more productive economy where a state faces fewer costs associated with non-workers, like children and the elderly. 

The United Nations Population Fund (Das Gupta, et al., 2014) identified a way forward, saying the successful implementation of policies that empower women and girls and promote gender equity in social and economic environments are vital to securing the demographic dividend.  Nigerian and Zambian students have “unanimously called for the empowerment of women as one of the ways of ending modern day slavery where girls are the target” (United Nation Information Centres, 2015, para. 1).  Nigeria and Zambia are two nations poised to take advantage of the demographic dividend, provided their women receive the support needed.  

According to Forbes (2013), Nigeria and Zambia account for 20% of the 20 Young Power Women in Africa (Figure 3). This provides further positive correlation that these two regions are poised to grow as a result of young power women through entrepreneurial endeavors and continued C-level boardroom control.  The reality is “women make up just over 50% of Africa’s growing population and their under-representation in social, political and economic spheres must be addressed if Africa is to leverage fully its promise and potential (EY, 2011, p. 7). 

Figure 3. Reflects the percentage of Africa’s most powerful women. Adapted from Forbes by M. Nsehe (2013, December 4). Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/mfonobongnsehe/2013/12/04/the-20-young-power-women-in-africa-2013/

Women, Sport, and Business Development in Nigeria and Zambia

Nigeria is a nation of contrasts.  It is home to the notorious Boko Haram, a militant Islamist group known for its many human rights abuses, including the abduction of more than 5,000 women and girls over the past five years.  A poor nation within the SSA, Nigeria experiences high fertility rates, and a lack of education (some 36% of adolescent girls not in secondary school, compared to 7.39 in Latin America and the Caribbean).  The United Nations Population Fund (Das Gupta, et al., 2014) has identified Nigeria is a country that could reap significant benefits from the demographic dividend with the proper investments in human capital.  They say the successful implementation of policies that empower women and girls and promote gender equity in social and economic environments are vital to securing the demographic dividend. 

On the other extreme, Nigeria has three placements on the Forbes list of the 20 Young Power Women in Africa 2013, Tara Fela-Durotoye, Founder, House Of Tara; Ola Orekunrin, Medical Doctor and Founder, The Flying Doctors; and Folake Folarin-Coker, Fashion Designer.  It is also a nation whose women have made inroads into athletics and into such traditional male sports as soccer, combat sports (such as judo) and weight lifting.  At the Atlanta Olympics in 1996, Nigeria’s female athletes won one gold, one silver, and two bronze medals.  The first individual gold medal won by Nigeria after 38 years of Olympic participation was by the female long jumper, Chioma Ajunwa.  In an analysis of gold medals won by Nigerians in all the African Games since inception, Nigerian men have won 28 gold medals; their female counterparts have won 57 medals (Audu, 1999).

The International Platform on Sport and Development (2013) report on The Role of Sport in Addressing Gender Issues, notes evidence from post-apartheid South Africa shows that young women from different backgrounds could use football as a platform to engage with one another, mentor each other, as well as develop friendships and strengthen relationships.  Similar findings from Nigeria suggest that sport plays a crucial role in enhancing social cohesion and encouraging social interaction among young women and girls.

Zambia, although smaller than Nigeria in SSA, is similar with regard to the challenges their women face with regards to full participation in sports and business opportunities.  In 2005, the National Olympic Committee of Zambia became the second in the world to elect women as both President (Miriam C. Moyo) and Secretary General (Hazel M. Kennedy), according to the official website of the IOC. Zambia placed one woman on the Forbes list of the 20 Young Power Women In Africa 2013 (Monica Musonda, Chief Executive Officer and Founder of Java Foods) (International Olympic Committee, 2005). 

Whether because of, or in spite of, the challenges women in Nigeria and Zambia face, they have shown remarkable resilience and confidence in their ability to start a business.  Some 44% of the population in Zambia and 41 % in Nigeria intended to start their own business (McCarthy, 2014).  Additionally, unlike much of the rest of the world, women in SSA showed much greater confidence in their entrepreneurship capabilities.  Kelley et al. (2013) found that four out of five women in Zambia, Malawi, Ghana, Uganda and Nigeria say they have the skills necessary to start their own business.  Part of the higher levels of confidence in SSA is because almost 60% of women report that they know other women entrepreneurs (Kelley et al., 2013).  The entrepreneurship confidence levels in SSA are also related to the types of businesses being started, often small, necessity-driven, and consumer-oriented with few or no employees.

In terms of entrepreneurship, the International Labour Organization released a seminal report in 2003 on Zambian women entrepreneurs.  Their demographic profile shows many of the women had similar characteristics in terms of age (45% were between 41-50 years old); education level completed (46.2% had completed college or university vs. only 20% at the national level); marital status (71% were married – 96% of them in a monogamous type in a nation where 10% live in polygamous marriage); number of children (72% have between 1-4 children vs. the  6.1 national average fertility rate), and work experience (89% had been employed in the formal sector, a small or medium enterprise or self).  These women entrepreneurs emphasized the need to develop certain qualities that they felt necessary for success as an entrepreneur, such as self-confidence, assertiveness, discipline, hard work, determination, perseverance, courage, being proactive and readiness to fight (International Labour Organization Office, Lusaka, and Gender in Development Division, Cabinet Office, 2003). 

These qualities are significantly enhanced through participation in sports.  Research among young women in South Africa indicated that athletes from one sample were more likely to have fewer children than non-athlete females from the same region (International Platform on Sport and Development, 2013).

When girls participate in sports they are more likely to attend school and participate in society.  When women and girls can walk on the playing field, they are more likely to step into the classroom, the boardroom, and step out as leaders in society. 

Sport is one of the best tools for social change because it is a large part of cultures around the world and reaches into every socioeconomic class of society. If laws are put in place, the benefits will be beyond measure. Sport helps develop self-esteem and confidence, improves physical and mental well-being, serves as a medium of communication, and empowers women to improve themselves and their communities. Nawal El Moutawakel, the first Olympic gold medalist from Morocco (1984 Olympics – hurdles). (EY, 2013b, p. 3)

Studies in the United States, for example, have also pointed to a positive relationship between girls’ participation in sport, positive attitudes towards education and higher academic achievements, girls being more likely to finish high school and college (Barber, Eccles, & Stone,  2001; Bailey, Wellard, & Dismore, 2004).  Using the concept of self-esteem, girls and women who participate in sport and physical activity in both developed and developing countries demonstrate higher self-esteem as well as improved self-perception, self-worth, and self-efficacy (Oglesby, 2007).  Evidence is especially strong from developing countries like Zambia and Nigeria, which indicates that involvement in organized sports activities helped to enhance girls’ sense of agency, self-empowerment and personal freedom (International Platform on Sport and Development, 2013).

Future Research Considerations

This analysis of literature provided evidence of a positive relationship between sports and increased self-esteem and self-confidence in woman and girls. Furthermore a clear relationship was outlined between women and advancements in entrepreneurship and C-level involvement due to their sports training.  

Some limitations are inherent in this study and are topics for future research.  One is the lack of empirical data to illustrate entrepreneurial and C-level involvement at the regional level.  A second expands on the prior in that there is limited data to support country level involvement in Africa with the exception of Nigeria and Zambia. This study would be enhanced by surveying a sample of female entrepreneurs in Nigeria and Zambia who have started businesses in the past 10 years. Such a survey could determine their level of participation in sport and inform the affect, if any, greater access to sport has made on their lives.  

Conclusion

Sport plays a vital role in laying the foundation for developing women’s capabilities. A United Nations report points out:

The participation of women and girls in sport challenges gender stereotypes and discrimination, and can therefore be a vehicle to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls. In particular, women in sport leadership can shape attitudes towards women’s capabilities as leaders and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains. (United Nations, 2007, p. 3) 

Sport can be an important tool for social empowerment through the skills and values learned, such as teamwork, negotiation, leadership, communication and respect for others.  The social benefits of participation in sport are thought to be especially important for girls, given that many girls, particularly in adolescence, have fewer opportunities than boys for social interaction outside the home and beyond family structures (Oglesby, the International Working Group on Women and Sport, & Women Sport International, 2007; WSF, n.d.). 

The existing Western, arguably global, business model is a male model of organizational structure and human relationships.  Men learn the rules of human organizations and interactions from sports in which they compete as boys.  Sport is one of the most important socio-cultural learning environments in our society and, until quite recently, has been reserved for boys and men.  Today women who do not know the written and unwritten rules of sport are at a disadvantage in understanding business models of organization based on sport.  It is critical that women and girls learn the same rules as men and boys (WSF, n.d.).

The great potential of women has yet to be realized. In both developed and emerging economies, women are vastly underrepresented in leadership roles and in many aspects of business, social and political life.  Sport can be an energizing factor in society, yet in many countries women and girls do not have access to sporting activities and do not play a significant part in sports’ ruling bodies, according to the 2005 Parliamentary Assembly, Council of Europe Report, Discrimination against women and girls in sport (Committee of Ministers, 2005).

For women, having opportunities and choices early in life is particularly vital.  Ensuring that girls are educated to the same level as boys in developing countries means that the world’s economy could be improved by US $92B a year (Ernest & Young, 2013b).  The benefit lasts for generations.  Children of educated mothers, especially daughters, are more likely to be enrolled in school and to have higher levels of educational attainment.

Women and girls who participate in sports, acquire new interpersonal networks, develop a sense of identity and access new opportunities, allowing them to become more engaged in school and community life, to enjoy freedom of expression and movement, and increase their self-esteem and self-confidence.  These are the foundational components that can lead to a seat in the boardroom or to becoming a successful entrepreneur.  For SSA, particularly Nigeria and Zambia, encouraging greater participation by women in sports can have a significant economic dividend. 

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